Person Centred-Care Essay Example for Free

Person Centred-Care EssayIts important to promote person centred determine as no individual is the same and everyones needs are different. Therefore we need to show that we have taken into account the individual as it will make them feel more valued and appreciated. It gives a personal touch to our standard of care. Another reason for the importance of promoting person centred values, is to make not just the service user feel valued but also make the families feel that we are taking on board their knowledge and collar of the service user, in order to give him/her the best care possible. Consentsee moredefine person centred values nvq 2Consent is prominent permission to do something, with an individual either taking part in an activity or accepting some kind of care or treatment.It is a legal requirement that consent is established before any intervention or caregiving activity takes place. Establishing consent is one way care workers can indicate they respect the individual a nd the individuals personal dignity.Consent can be given in a number of ways verbally, in report or through actions. You may also have informed consent, such(prenominal) as perhaps by raising an arm to be supported when dressing, and thereby imply consent. Informed consent is given when the individual understands what they are consenting to. If were unable to gain consent you will go to the person allocated such as a social worker, next of kin (family) or advocates/solicitor.

Cruiseline Industry Research Essay Example for Free

Cruiseline Industry Research EssayInstead of a long and boring trip, cruise industry ass offer a perfect one with full of fun. Nowadays, there are a lot cruise companies around the world and carnival Corporation, Princess Cruises and kinglike Caribbean global are the most famous. Next the development of those companies will be discussed in order to find how they are operated and what kinds of changes they are done. 1. The development of Carnival Corporation Carnival Corporation is the graduation exercise cruise operator in the world, boasting about dozen cruise lines and about 100 ships with a total passenger substance of more than 190,000. This company was founded in 1972 by Ted Arison and his former schoolmate Meshulam Riklis. At the time, the first ship of Carnival purchased was Mardi Gras( preceding name Empress of Canada). Although its future voyage went wear and better, Arison had to think about cutting the cost of each run, like reducing fuel consumption by reduci ng the speed and the frequency of stops it do as a result of the companys debt which was more than 5 million dollars. If this was true, the passenger would have to spend more time on the trip, so Arison added other value-added services entertainment feature, including nightclubs, disco and so on.In fact this was a revolution for the whole cruise industry to make the trip fun. Accordingly, Mardi Gras was called manoeuvre ship. This was the part of early development of Carnival. Next part includes the growth and expansion from 1970 to 1980. With the help of the hit television series The Love Boat, the cruise industry was revitalized. At that time, Arison bought another 2 ships the Carnival bought in 1975 the Festivale bought in 1977. In 1978, he also booked the fourth ship, the Tropicale. As the result of expansion, Carnival had trey ships running one week cruises From Florida to Caribbean.In the beginning of 1980s, Arison ordered three more ships so that Carnival owned the largest cruise line fleet with sevensome ships in the world. Around 1980-1990, it had a significant change from strategic view. In order to fill all these ships, Carnival made use of different kinds of forward motion methods. Firstly, Carnival took advantage of aggressive marketing and advertising strategies. Its marketing channel was Fun Ship advertising campaign in 1984 through talk shows and the largest entanglement television.Secondly, Carnival tried to gain the support from travel agents which could have recommended Carnival cruises as the first choice to the customers. Thirdly, Carnival offered cheaper, shorter trips to attract younger, more middle-class customers compared with previous customer segments. Carnival tried best to run at full capacity. In addition, Carnival paid attention to strategic acquisitions. Carnival was not save buying the cruise shipping business (Holland America Line, 1988) but also the companies (Windstar Sail Cruises and Holland America Westours) that in cluded hotels. During the year following the acquisition, Carnival carried 579,000 passengers, generating $600 million in revenues and earning profits of $196 million. later on that, it was another period for Carnival 1990-2000. There was no much significant change since the last period. In 1991, Carnival ordered a 300 million dollar ship Sensation and a 315 million dollars ship Fascination. The largest passenger ship Carnival Destiny which was at 101,000 tons and had dwell for 2,640 people set for sail in 1996.The super-luxury cruise line business for Carnival came in 1998 contributing to Cunards five ships which is the QE2, THE Vistafjord, the Royal Viking Sun and sea Goddess I and II. At that time, Carnival did the most important acquisition the Cunard White Star Line. Then the company changed its legal name to Carnival Corporation in 1998. Next stage was the new millennium it was not easy for Carnival in the beginning. There were several reasons the terrorist attacks in 200 1 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SAS) helping price fell and profits waned under fire for covering up illegal dumping.In 2002, Carnival acquired Princess Cruises with 5, 67 billion bids through the competition with Royal Caribbean. 1980-1990 significant change Growth and Expansion 1970-80 Early history Founded in 1972 Strategic acquisitions An innovative marketing Campaign Growth and Expansion 1990-2000 New millennium The structure of the development of Carnival Corporation 2. The development of Princess Cruises Princess Cruises is a British-American owned cruise line, based in Santa Clarita, California in the United States. Princess Cruises was founded in 1965.The first two ships were Princess Patricia and Italia. Then Princess Cruises was acquired by the worlds largest shipping company with 320 ocean going vessels which name was Britains Peninsular amp Oriental move Navigation Company (PampO) in 1974. With the development of its Cruise industry, P amp O Princess Cruises pai d more attention to acquirement. In 1986, Pamp O Princess Cruises acquired Tour Alaska. After next two years, Sitnar Line was purchased by P ampO Princess Cruises and all of its major tonnage was transferred to Princess which includes three ships under construction.

Stackelberg Leader Follower Models For Strategic Decision Making Engineering Essay

Stackelberg Leader Follower Models For Strategic Decision Making Engineering EssayThis paper reviews some Stackelberg Leader-Follower models employ for strategic close making. The bargon(a) Stackelberg duopoly is looked at frontmost, and a generalisation of the Stackelberg duopoly problem is given. By studying the models by stump spud et al. (1983) and Smeers and masher (1997), the paper reviews Stackelberg model from its important form to the recent random recitations. The paper looks at the mathematical formulation of both a nonlinear mathematical program model and a nonlinear stochastic programming model. Towards the end of this paper, a simple numeric example is given and practical applications of Stackelberg Leader-Follower models ar discussed.Chapter 1 IntroductionIn political economy, an oligopoly is con nervered to be the closely interesting and complex foodstuff structure (amongst other structures like monopolies and perfect competition). Most industries in th e UK and world- from retailing to fast food, mobile ph iodine ne dickensrks to professional services- are oligopolistic. Given the current financial climate, it is imperative for loadeds to be sure that they spend a penny decisions accurately, maximising not alone their network, but also their chances of remaining competitive. Many mathematicians and economists project attempted to model the decision making process and arrive at maximizing strategies of oligopolistic sozzleds. For example, A. A. Cournot was one of the head start mathematicians to model the behaviours of monopolies and duopolies in 1838. In Cournots model both squiffys choose their product simultaneously assuming that the other besotted does not alter its make (Gibbons, 1992). Later, in 1934, H. V. Stackelberg proposed a different model whither one of the duopoly trues makes its output decision first and the other upstanding observes this decision and localizes its output train (Stackelberg, 1934).Th e classical Stackelberg model has been extended to model a variety of strategic decision making. For example, stump spud et al. (1983) model the output decision making process in an oligopoly. Later works by Smeers and Wolf (1997) extend this model to include a stochastic element. More interestingly, in a model by He et al. (2009), the Stackelberg theory is apply to model the interaction surrounded by a manufacturer and a retail merchant when making decisions about cooperative advertising policies and wholesale prices.The aim of this paper is to review the Stackelberg models from its classic form to the more recent stochastic versions. In chapter 2, the simple Stackelberg duopoly is reviewed and a generalisation of the Stackelberg duopoly problem is given. In chapter 3, more complicated and recent models are reviewed. The mathematical formulation of tater et al.s (1983) and Smeers and Wolfs (1997) model is given. At the end of chapter 3, a numerical example is applied to Smeer s and Wolfs (1997) model. In chapter 4, practical applications of Stackelberg drawing card-follower models are discussed. Chapter 4 also looks at the drawbacks of and possible extensions to Stackelberg models. Appendix 1 explains the Oligopoly merchandise structure and economics involved in profit maximisation.Chapter 2 Classical Stackelberg Leader-Follower Model2.1 Duopoly BehaviourStackelberg (1934) discussed price formation under oligopoly by looking at the special display case of a duopoly. He argued that firms in a duopoly fecal matter be adjudge either as mutually beneficial on or independent of the rival firms behaviourReferring to the two firms as firm 1 and firm 2, respectively, firm 1s behaviour rouse be generalised as followsFirm 1 views the behaviour of firm 2 as being independent of firm 1s behaviour. Firm 1 would regard firm 2s supply as a given vari able and adapts itself to this supply. Thus, the behaviour of firm 1 is dependent on that of firm 2 (Stackelberg, 1934).Firm 1 raise view the behaviour of firm 2 as being dependent on firm 1s behaviour. Thus, firm 2 always adapts itself to the formers behaviour (firm 2 views firm 1s behaviour as a given situation) (Stackelberg, 1934).However, match to Stackelberg (1934), there is a difference in the firms actual positions for each one of the firms could adapt to either of these two positions, making price formation imperfect. Stackelberg (1934) describes ternion cases that arise from this situationBowler (1924) first described a situation when both firms in the duopoly strive for food market dominance. According to Bowler (1924), for this to happen the first firm supplies the beat it would if it dominated the market with the southward firm as a follower. This supply is referred to as the independent supply. By supplying this output level the first firm tries to convince the fleck firm to view its behaviour as a given variable. However, the second firm also supplies the independent suppl y since it is also striving for market dominance. This duopoly is referred to as the Bowler duopoly with quantity supply of the duopoly equalling the sum of two independent supply. According to Stackelberg (1934), the price formation under the Bowler duopoly is unstable because neither of the firms tries to maximise profit under the given circumstance.The second case described by Stackelberg (1934) is a situation where both firms party favor being dependent on the other firms behaviour. The first firm would have to match (in a profit maximising manner) its output level to the each output in the second firms feasible set of output. The second firm does the same and both firms are thus followers. This is a Cournot duopoly, first described by A. A Cournot in 1838. According to Stackelberg 1934, the price formation here is unstable because neither of the firms tries to achieve the largest profit under the given circumstance.The third case is a situation where one firm strives for inde pendence and the other favour being dependent. In this case both firms are better off doing what the other firm would like. Both firms adapt their behaviour to maximising profit under the given circumstance. This situation is referred to as the asymmetric duopoly or more commonly as the Stackelberg duopoly. The price formation is more stable in this case because, according to Stackelberg (1934), no one has an interest in modifying the actual price formation.The Stackelberg model is based on the third case of a Stackelberg duopoly.2.2 The ModelIn the Stackelberg duopoly the leader (Stackelberg firm) moves first and the follower moves second. As opposed to other models like the Bertrand model and Cournot model where firms make decisions about price or output simultaneously, firms in the Stackelberg duopoly make decisions sequentially.The Stackelberg counterbalance is determined development backwards induction (first determine the follower firms best re radical to an arbitrary outpu t level by the Stackelberg firm). According to Gibbons (1992), discipline is an important element of the model. The information in question is the Stackelberg firms level of output (or price, Dastidar (2004) looks at Stackelberg residue in price). The follower firm would k nowadays this output once the Stackelberg firm moves first and, as importantly, the Stackelberg firm knows that the follower firm will know the output level and respond to it accordingly.Inspired by the work of Gibbons (1992), potato et al. (1983) and Dastidar (2004), a general solution to the Stackelberg game (duopoly) is derived in the parts that follow.2.2.1 Price bring, personify powers, and profit theatrical rolesSuppose that two firms in a duopoly supply a uniform product.Denote the take away function of this market as, where is the total level of output supplied by the duopoly (is the Stackelberg firms output level and is the follower firms output level). The price function can be re-written as.Den ote the cost functions (Appendix 1) as for the Stackelberg firm, and for the follower firm.The profit function of the Stackelberg firm is given bySimilarly, the profit function of the follower firm is given by2.2.2 Backward induction to derive the best response functions and Stackelberg equilibriumAccording to Gibbons (1992), the best response for the follower will be one that maximises its profit given the output decision of the Stackelberg firm.The followers profit maximisation problem can be written asThis can be solve by differentiating the objective function and equating the differential to zero (as seen in Appendix 1). use chain rule to differentiate comparison 2 and setting the differential to zero, the following result is obtainedNote that this is a partial differentiation of the profit function since the function depends on the lease function which depends on two variables. equivalence 4 gives the followers best response function. For a given the best response quantity satisfies equation 4. As a result, the Stackelberg firms profit maximisation problem becomesBy differentiating the objective function in equation 5 and equating the differential to zero, the following result which maximises the Stackelberg firms profit is obtainedBy solving equation 6 with the follower firms best response profit maximising output, is obtained by the Stackelberg firm given the followers best response. Gibbons (1992) describes as the Stackelberg equilibrium (or the Nash equilibrium of the Stackelberg game).2.2.3 ExampleGibbons (1992) considers a simple duopoly selling homogeneous products. He assumes that both firms are identical and the marginal cost of production is constant at. He also assumes that the market faces a linear downward tilt demand curve. The profit function of the firms is given bywhere, with paying the Stackelberg firm and representing the follower firm.Using backward induction, the follower firms best response function is calculated declaration e quation 8The Stackelberg firm anticipates that its output will be met by the followers response. Thus the Stackelberg firm maximises profit by setting output toSolving equation 10Substituting this in equation 9Equations 11 and 12 give the Stackelberg equilibrium. The total output in this Stackelberg duopoly is.Note Gibbons (1992) worked out the total output in a Cournot duopoly to be (using this example) which is slight than the output in the Stackelberg duopoly the market price is higher in the Cournot duopoly and lower in the Stackelberg duopoly. Each firm in the Cournot duopoly produces the follower is worse off in the Stackelberg model than in the Cournot model because it would supply a lower quantity at a lower market price. Clear, there exists a first performer advantage in this case.In general, according to Dastidar (2004), first advantage is possible if firms are identical and if the demand is concave and costs are convex. Gal-or (1985) showed that first m over advantage exists if the firms are identical and have identical downward sloping best response functions.Chapter 3 Recent Stackelberg Leader-Follower ModelsThe classical Stackelberg model has been an inspiration for numerous economists and mathematicians. Murphy et al. (1983) extend the Stackelberg model to an oligopoly. Later, Smeers and Wolf (1997) extended Murphy et al.s model to a stochastic version where demand is unknown when the Stackelberg firm makes its decision. In a more recent announce by DeMiguel and Xu (2009) the Stackelberg problem is extended to an oligopoly with multi-leaders.In this section the models proposed by Murphy et al. (1983) and Smeers and Wolf (1997) are reviewed.3.1 A Nonlinear mathematical Programming VersionThe model proposed by Murphy et al (1983), is a nonlinear mathematical programming version of the Stackelberg model. In their model, they consider the supply side of an oligopoly that supplies homogeneous product. The model is designed to model output decis ions in a non-cooperative oligopoly.There are followers in this market who are referred to as Cournot firms (note that from now onwards the follower firms are referred to as Cournot firm as opposed to just follower firms) and leader who is referred to as the Stackelberg firm (as before). The Stackelberg firm considers the reaction of the Cournot firms in its output decision and sets its output level in a profit maximising manner. The Cournot firms, on the other hand, observe the Stackelberg firms decision and maximise their individual cabbage by setting output under the Cournot impudence of zero conjectural variations (Carlton and Perloff, 2005, define conjectural variation are expectations make by firms in an oligopolistic market about reactions of the other firm). It is assumed that all the firms have complete knowledge about the other firms.3.1.1 Notations and assumptionsFor each Cournot firm, let represent the output level. For the Stackelberg firm, let represent the output le vel (note that is used here instead of, as seen earlier, to distinguish the Stackelberg firm from the Cournot firms).is the total cost function of level of output by Cournot firms and is the total cost function of level of output by the Stackelberg firm.Let represents the inverse market demand curve (that is, is the price at which consumers are will and able to purchase units of output).In addition to the Cournot assumption and assumption of complete knowledge, Murphy et al. (1983) make the following assumptionand are both convex and twice differentiable.is a strictly decreasing function and twice differentiable which satisfies the following inequality,There exists a quantity (the maximum level of output any firm is willing to supply) such(prenominal) that,For referencing, these set of assumption will be referred to as precondition A.Assumption 2 implies that the industrys marginal revenue (Appendix 1) decreases as industry supply increases. A proof of this statement can be nomina te in the report by Murphy et al. (1983).Assumption 3 implies that at output levels the marginal cost is greater than the price.3.1.2 Stackelberg-Nash-Cournot (SCN) equilibriumThe Stackelberg-Nash-Cournot (SCN) equilibrium is derived at in a similar way to the Stackelberg equilibrium seen in chapter 2.Using backward induction, Murphy et al. (1983) first maximise the Cournot firms profit under the assumption of zero conjectural variation and for a given.For each Cournot firm let the set of output levels be such that, for a given and assuming are fixed, solves the following Cournot problemAccording to Murphy et al. (1983), the objective function in equation 15 is a strictly convex profit function over the closed, convex and compact interval. This implies that a unique optimum exists.The functions can be referred to as the joint reaction functions of the Cournot firms. Murphy et al. (1983) define the pile up reaction curve asThe Stackelberg problem can be written asIf solves, then the set of output levels is the SNC equilibrium withTo mystify this equilibrium, the output levels posit to be determined. Murphy et al. (1983) use the Equilibrating program (a family of mathematical programs designed to reconcile the supply-side and demand-side of a market to equilibrium) to determineLet the Lagrange multiplier associated with the maximisation problem 19 be. Murphy et al.s (1983) approach here is to determine for which the best. The following result, obtained from Murphy et al. (1983), defines the optimal solution to problem 19Theorem 1 For a fixed, consider Problem suppose that satisfy Assumption A. Denote by the unique optimal solution to and let be the corresponding optimal Lagrange Multiplier associated with problem 19. (In case since alternative optimal multipliers associated with problem 19 exist, let be the minimum non-negative optimal Lagrange Multiplier.) Then,is a continuous function of for.is a continuous, strictly decreasing function of. Moreover, there exist output levels and such that and .A set of output levels optimal to Problem, where, satisfy the Cournot Problem 15 if and only if, whence, for.(This theorem is taken from Murphy et al. (1983) with a few alterations to the notation)The proof of this result can be anchor in the report by Murphy et al. (1983).This theorem provides an efficient way of finding for each fixed. For example, one can simple conduct a univariate bisection search to find the unique root of.3.1.3 Properties of andMurphy et al. (1983) describes the aggregate Cournot reaction curve as followsis a continuous, strictly decreasing function of.If the right hand differential gear of with respect to is denoted as (the rate of increase of with an increase in ), then for each The proof to these two properties can be found in the report by Murphy et al. (1983).Murphy et al. (1983) state that if solves the Stackelberg problem 17, then the profit make by the Stackelberg firm is greater than or equal to the profit it would have made as a Cournot firm. Suppose that is a Nash-Cournot equilibrium for the firm oligopoly. is the output the Stackelberg firm would supply if it was a Cournot firm. solvesBut since solves the Stackelberg problem 17, the following must(prenominal) holdIn fact, is the lower bound of. The proof to this can be found in Murphy et al. (1983)From assumption 3 in Assumption A, it is displace that. Thus, it is clear that is an upper bound. However, according to Murphy et al. (1983) another upper bound exists. In a paper by Sherali et al. (1980) on the Interaction between Oligopolistic firms and hawkish Fringe (a price taking firm in an oligopoly that competes with dominant firms) a different follower-follower model is discussed. In this model, the competitive fringe is content at equilibrium to have adjusted its output to the level for which marginal cost equals price. Murphy et al. (1983) summarise this model as followsFor fixed and suppose is a set of output levels such that for each firm solvesandFor the Stackelberg firm, let satisfyIn addition to Assumption A, if is strictly convex, then a unique solution exists and satisfies conditions 23 and 24. The Equilibrating Program with a fringe becomesTheorem 1 holds for with and which implies that. In fact, if is strictly convex, is the upper bound of.Collectively, is bounded as follows3.1.4 Existence and uniqueness of the Stackelberg-Nash-Cournot equilibriumMurphy et al. (1983) prove the existence and uniqueness of the Stackelberg-Nash-Cournot (SCN) equilibrium. Their approach to the proof is summarised belowExistenceFor the SNC equilibrium to exist, and for should satisfy Assumption A.Since is bounded and is continuous (as is continuous), the Stackelberg problem 17 involves the maximisation of a continuous objective function over the compact set. This implies that an optimal solution exists. From Theorem 1 it is seen that a unique set of output levels, which simultaneously solves the Cournot problem 15, e xists. As a result the SNC equilibrium exists.UniquenessIf is convex, then the equilibrium is unique.Since is convex, the objective function of the Stackelberg problem 17 becomes strictly concave on. This has been proven by Murphy et al. (1983) and the proof can be found in their report. This implies the equilibrium is unique.3.1.5 Algorithm to solve the Stackelberg problemMurphy et al. (1983) provide an algorithm in their report to solve the Stackelberg problem. This algorithm is summarised as followsTo start with the Stackelberg firm needs the following information about the market and the Cournot firmsCost functions of the Cournot firms, satisfying Assumption A.The upper bound as per Assumption A.The inverse demand function for the industry, which also satisfies Assumption A.With this information, the Stackelberg firm need to determine the lower bound and split the interval into grid points with, where and (from 26). A piecewise linear thought of is made as followsHere,is an app roximation to and from equation 20 it follows thatNote that at each grid point the approximation agrees with.The Stackelberg problem 17, thus, becomescan be re-written asWhere andThus problem 30 becomesThe objective function is strictly concave and solvable.Let be the objective function of the Stackelberg problem 17 and the objective function of the piecewise Stackelberg problem 32, thenSuppose is the optimum level of output. First, suppose that is an endpoint of the interval, then. Now suppose that, that is, . Then needs to be evaluated in order to determine. Theorem 1 can be used here. Recall that is a continuous, decreasing function of. To find the point where (part iii of Theorem 1), the following method is suggested by Murphy et al. (1983)Figure Method for determiningSource Smeers and Wolf (1997) (alterations made to the notation)First determine using the bounds. Next, determine using the bounds. Then determine using the bounds.Next, determine using the bounds and so on. If th en evaluate using the bounds.Having evaluated for some grid points, the game can either be terminated with the best of these grid points as an optimal solution or the grid can be redefined at an appropriate region to improve accuracy.Murphy et al. (1983) go on to determine the maximum error from the estimated optimal Stackelberg solution. This is summarised belowLet be the derivative of with respect to , thenLet be the marginal profit made by the Stackelberg firm for supplying units of output,Let be the actual optimal objective function value in the interval with the estimate being . Then the error of this estimate is defined assatisfies the followingThis concludes the review of Murphy et al.s (1983) nonlinear mathematical programing model of the Stackelberg problem in an oligopoly.3.2 A Stochastic VersionSmeers and Wolf (1997) provide an extension to the nonlinear mathematical programming version of the Stackelberg model by Murphy et al. (1983) discussed in subsection 3.1. In the s ame way as Murphy et al.s (1983) model, the Stackelberg game in this version is contend in two stages. In the first stage, the Stackelberg firm makes a decision about its output level. In the second stage, the Cournot firms, having observed the Stackelberg firms decision, react according to the Cournot assumption of zero conjectural variation. However, Smeers and Wolf (1997) add the element of incredulity to this process. When the Stackelberg firm makes its decision the market demand is uncertain, but demand is known when the Cournot firms make their decision. This makes the Smeers and Wolfs (1997) version of the Stackelberg model stochastic. Smeers and Wolf (1997) assume that this uncertainty can be modelled my demand scenarios.3.2.1 Notations and AssumptionFor the costs functions, the same notations are used. is the total cost function of level of output by Cournot firms and is the total cost function of level of output by the Stackelberg firm.The demand function is changed slig htly to take into account the uncertainty. is a set of demand scenarios with corresponding probabilities of occurrence As such, is the price at which customers are willing and able to purchase units of output in demand scenario . has a hazard of occurrence.The same Assumption set A discussed in subsection 3.1.1 apply here with alterations made to conditions 13 and 14. Assumption set A can be re-written asand are both convex and twice differentiable, as before.is a strictly decreasing function and twice differentiable which satisfies the following inequality,There exists a quantity (the maximum level of output any firm is willing to supply in each demand scenario) such that,For referencing, these set of assumption will be referred to as Assumption B.3.2.2 Stochastic Stackelberg-Nash-Cournot (SSNC) equilibriumSmeers and Wolf (1997) use the same approach seen before to derive the SSNC equilibrium.The Cournot problem 15can be re-written as followsFor each Cournot firm and each demand s cenario, let the set of output levels be such that, for a given and assuming are fixed, solves the following Cournot problemNote that is the output level of Cournot firm when the demand scenario is .For each, according to Murphy et al. (1983), the objective function in equation 40 is a strictly convex profit function over the closed, convex and compact interval.The functions can be referred to as the joint reaction functions of the Cournot firms for a demand scenario. The aggregate reaction curve becomesThe Stackelberg problem with demand uncertainty can be written asNote the Stackelberg problem defined problem 42 differs from that defined in 17. This is because of the element of uncertainty. The Cournot problem 40 is similar to the Cournot problem 15 because the demand is known when the Cournot firms make their decision. In the Stackelberg problem 42 note the element. This is the estimated mean price, that is, the Stackelberg firm considers the reaction of the Cournot firm under ea ch demand scenario and works out the market price in each scenario, and it then multiplies it by the probability of each scenario. The summation of this represents the estimated mean price.If solves the stochastic, then the set of output levels is the SSNC equilibrium for demand scenario.To get this equilibrium, the output levels need to be determined. Smeers and Wolf (1997) use the same approach as Murphy et al. (1983) in doing so. The Equilibrating program is the same as that in 19, with changes made to the Cournot output and demand function For each demand scenario ,Theorem 1 lays out a foundation on how to solve the Equilibrating program in problem 19 and can also be used to solve 44. Smeers and Wolf (1997) Summarise Theorem 1 as followsTheorem 2 For each fixed,An optimal solution for the problem satisfies the Cournot problem 40 if and only if the Lagrange multiplier,, associated with the Equilibrating program 44, is equal to zero.This multiplier is a continuous, strictly decrea sing function of . Moreover, there exists and such that(This theorem is taken from Smeers and Wolf (1997), with a few alteration to the notations)The properties of are the same as those discussed in subsection 3.1.3. The existence and uniqueness of the SSNC equilibrium is shown in the same ways as the SNC equilibrium of Murphy et al.s (1983) model discussed in subsection 3.1.4.3.2.3 Algorithm to solve the Stackelberg problemThe Stackelberg problem here is solved in the same way Murphy et al. (1983) proposed (discussed in subsection 3.1.5).In their report, Smeers and Wolf (1997) do not specify the upper and lower bound of, thus, it is assumed that is bounded by.The interval can be split into grid points with, where and . The piecewise linear approximation of in 27 can be re-written as followsHere,has the same properties as 29.The Stackelberg problem 42, thus, becomesHereafter, the algorithm summarised in subsection 3.1.5 can be used to solve this problem.3.3 numeric ExampleIn Murphy et al.s (1983) report a simple example of the Stackelberg model is given. They consider the case of a linear demand curve and quadratic equation cost functionsIt is assumed that the Stackelberg firm and Cournot firms are identical. The Cournot problem 15 becomes as follow, with as the optimal solutionSolving this problem yieldsNote the upper bound of is found by setting. The working to get equation 51 is shown in Appendix 2.The aggregate reaction curve can be written asUsing this information, this example is now extended to Smeers and Wolfs (1997) model with numerical values.Note that the functions listed in equations 49, 50, 51 and 52 satisfy Assumptions A B and other properties discussed in previous sections.Suppose and. And suppose demand is unknown when the Stackelberg firm makes its decision. The cost functions of the firms will be as followsFigure Different Demand ScenariosThe tables below describe the possible demand scenarios, probability of each scenario occurring, the j oint reaction curve and aggregate reaction curve for, andScenario,Demand,Probability,= Demand falls,= Demand remains unchanged,= Demand Increases,Scenario,Joint reaction curve,Aggregate reaction curve,Using this information, the Stackelberg problem 42 can be solved. First, the estimated price element can be calculated as followsSubstituting this result back into the Stackelberg problem 42 givesThis problem can easily be solved by differentiating the objective function and finding the value of for which the differential is equal to zero. The working to obtain the following optimal solution is shown in Appendix 2.Using this result, the following result is obtained for each demand scenarioFigure Optimal Output, Price and Profit1260.87098.02652.96147.042260.870134.39798.42201.583260.870170.75943.87256.13Stackelberg firm Profit,Cournot firm Profit,Industry Profit,121,243.8712,010.8169,387.12235,573.1222,574.95125,872.92349,802.3736,444.87195,581.87The tables in figure 3 state the SSNC e quilibriums for each scenario, and the profits made by each firm in this oligopoly and the total industry profit in each scenario. Note that since is strictly convex, the equilibrium obtained for each scenario is unique. Also note that in all three scenarios, the Stackelberg Output and profit is greater than that of the Cournot firms, illustrating the first mover advantage.Chapter 4 DiscussionIn this section, the practical applications, drawbacks and possible extensions to Stackelberg models are discussed.4.1 Practical Applications of Stackelberg modelsStackelberg models are widely used by firms to aid decision making. Some examples includeManufacturer-Retailer Supply ChainHe et al. (2009) present a stochastic Stackelberg problem to model the interaction between a manufacturer and a retailer. The manufacturer would announce its cooperative advertising policy (percentage of retailers advertising expenses it will cover-participation rate) and the wholesale price. The retailer, in resp onse, chooses its optimal advertising and set policies. When the retailers advertising and pricing is an importan

Health Related Physical Fitness Physical Education Essay

Health Related Physical Fitness Physical Education EssayPhysical fittingness is the mogul to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness without undue plump raseigue and ample energy to enjoy leisure time pursuits and meet out of the blue(predicate) emergencies. (Presidents Council on Physical Fitness and Sport)Physical physiological seaworthiness is the ability of the heart, consanguinity vessels, lungs and energys to perform at optimal efficiency. (Bud Getchell, PhD)Physical physical fitness is the ability to perform look into to vigorous take aims of corporal activity without undue fatigue and the capability of maintaining such ability throughout life. (Ameri domiciliate College of Sport Medicine)Physical fitness is a set of attributes that wad have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity. (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)Definitions with faint-hearted, depicted objective wordings and definitions made up of equipment casualty that to a fault need shaping led to confusion and lack of ability for objective bar of physical fitness. There are other numerous definitions of physical fitness which are vague and subjective as forefronted by the on a lower floor saymentPhysical fitness is one of the most poor defined and most frequently mis utilize terms in the English Language. (Brian Sharkey, PhD, professor emeritus of Montana State University)To enable objective measurement of physical fitness, it is divided into ii components wellness- related to components of physical fitness and acrobatic ability components of physical fitness. The later components are related to performance or skill.Figure X Components of physical fitness (ACSM, 2008).From the public wellness perspective, health related physical fitness are more important than those related to athletic ability or are skill-related or performance related components. The assessment of health related physical fitness is ordinarily done by fitn ess professionals, however, despite the recognized importance of health related physical fitness, it is not commonly assessed by clinicians(ACSM, 2008).As illustrated in figure X below, all health-related components of physical fitness contribute advertly and in balance to the whole construct of health related physical fitness.Figure X A balance among all five components to the construct of health related physical fitness (ACSM, 2008).a. cardiorespiratory fitnessCardiorespiratory fitness is related to the ability of a person to perform large heft, dynamic, moderate to high intensity pattern for prolong periods and foot be assessed by various techniques. Cardiorespiratory fitness of a person reflects the functional capability of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lungs and relevant muscles during various types of influence demands. It is related to the ability to perform large muscle, dynamic, moderate-to-high intensity course session for prolonged periods.There are mevery ord ers available to measure or name cardiorespiratory fitness. Those methods fall into third general types of assessment which arei. Field test.These tests generally demand maximal effort for the best bump off. For this type of test, the subjects have to perform a timed effect of a certain distance, complete a measured distance, or perform for a set time to predict cardiorespiratory fitness. Examples of field tests modes embroil walk, walk-run, unit of ammunition, travel and others.ii. Submaximal exertion test.This type of test require development either step test or a single-stage or a multi-stage submaximal exercise protocol to predict maximal aerobic capacity or cardiorespiratory fitness from submaximal measures of efficiency of certain measured variables (usually heart rate response). Some modes of submaximal exertion tests include steps, treadmill, cycle and others. Mevery of these tests required to be performed in a laboratory setting.iii. Maximal exertion testMaximal exe rtion test use a bedded or progressive exercise test to measure an souls volitional fatigue or exhaustion which involves a measure of cardiorespiratory fitness rather than prediction and is believably performed in a laboratory setting.Maximal exertion test along with collection of expired gases is considered as a original measurement of cardiorespiratory fitness however it is desirable in m any setting. Decision of which test to be use depends on* Time demands* Expenses or be* Personnel needed (qualification)* Equipment or facilities needed* Physician supervision needed* Population tested (safety concern)* Need for accuracy of informationb. FlexibilityFlexibility in health related physical fitness is defined as the ability of a person to move a joint through its complete trope of movement. Flexibility is not joint specific as it is dependent upon which muscle and joint being evaluated. some other factors effecting flexibility includes distensibility of the joint capsule, ad equate warm up, muscle viscocity and compliance of ligaments and tendons. Flexibility assessment is necessary because of the recognized association between decreased performances of activities of daily nutrition with inadequate flexibility. Development of fibrous lower support pain may be contributed by poor lower gage renal pelvis flexibility. In reality, theres no single test that can apply to truly characterize a persons flexibility. The most widely apply test for the assessment of flexibility is the sit and reach test. however though it does not represent the whole remains flexibility, it does represent hamstring, articulatio coxae and lower back flexibility.c. Muscular strengthMuscular strength in health related physical fitness refers to the maximal force that can be generated by a specific muscle or muscle collection.d. Muscular courageMuscular resolution refers to the ability of a muscle assort to execute repeated contractions over a period of time sufficient to cause muscular fatigue, or to maintain a specific percentage of the maximum voluntary contraction for a prolong period of time.CENCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKCardiovascular diseases risk (National vascular Disease Prevention Alliance, 2009)1. Modifiable riska. Lifestyle relatedi. Nutritionii. Physical activity leveliii. Smoking statusiv. Alcohol intakeb. metabolous riski. Blood squelchii. Waist circumference and body mass indexiii. Serum lipidiv. Blood borecole2. Non modifiable riska. eldb. Sexc. Family history of premature CVDd. Social history (cultural identity, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, mental health)Physical Fitnessa. Health related physical fitnessa. Cardiovascular enduranceb. muscle endurancec. muscle strengthd. flexibilityJUSTIFICATION OF STUDYOBJECTIVES1. General objectivesTo compare the effect of crystallize resistance planning exploitation weak pinheads and ankle-wrist weights on body composition, metabolic risk and health related physical fitness level.2. Specific obj ectivesi. To determine and compare the effect of light resistance cultivation between apply dumbbells and using ankle-wrist weights in term of changes in body compositiona. Body mass indexb. Waist circumferencec. Waist to hip ratiod. Percentage in body fate. Fat free massii. To determine and compare the effect of light resistance training between using dumbbells and using ankle-wrist weights in term of metabolic risksa. Blood bosomb. Lipidsi. Total cholesterolii. LDL-Ciii. HDL-Civ. Non-HDLv. Total cholesterol/HDL-C ratiovi. TGc. Fasting blood sugariii. To determine and compare the effect of light resistance training between using dumbbells and using ankle-wrist weights in term of other components of health related physical fitnessa. Cardiorespiratory fitnessb. Flexibilityc. Muscular enduranced. Muscular strength3. Research questionsDoes light resistance training using dumbbells have a similar significant beneficial effects compared to light resistance training using ankle-wrist w eights.4. Study hypothesisBoth types of light resistance training using dumbbells or using ankle-wrist weights does have beneficial effects in term of improvement in body composition, reducing metabolic risk and improving health related physical fitness level.METHODOLOGYTumpat is a district (jajahan) in Kelantan, situated at the East Coast of peninsular Malaysia. The town of Tumpat is approximately 15km from the state capital, Kota Bharu. Tumpat district has an area of 169.5 square kilometres is one of the smallest district in Kelantan (Tumpat District Council, 2012). Total population of Tumpat district in 2010 was 143,793 with the majority being the Malays (130,922 or 91.0%). Other ethnic groups include Chinese (6,227 or 4.8%), Siamese (4,784 or 3.7%) and Indians (121 or less than 1.0%). Tumpat district is divided into seven subdistrict (mukim) which is Jal Besar, Kebakat, Pengkalan Kubor, Sungai Pinang, Terbok, Tumpat and Wakaf Bharu (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010b, Depa rtment of Statistics Malaysia, 2010a).1. Study designThis is a single-centred, randomized parallel group trial.2. Reference populationThe inference population for this force field were Malaysian adults3. Target populationThe target population were Malaysian sonorous and obese adults4. Source populationThe source population for this study were all adults living in Tumpat Districts.5. Sampling frameOverweight and obese adults living in Tumpat District were recruited for this study.6. Subjectsi. Inclusion criteriaa. Aged equal or more than 18 years old at the time of recruitment.b. Body mass index of equal or more than 23 kg/m2.ii. Exclusion criteriaa. Pregnancyb. On any weight management treatment/programi. Taking any medicinal drug which the primary intention is to reduce weightii. Taking any traditional medication which the primary intention os to reduce weightiii. On any dietary modification for weight managementc. Existing joint pain which restrict physical movementd. Existing cardiac condition which restricted physical activity i.e. a person with NYHA Functional capacity class II, III and IV (American Heart Association, 2011)7. Sample Size determinationNumber of subjects required for this study were calculated using sample coat calculation for test of means with repeated measures in STATA software (StataCorp., 2011). With power of study (1-?) set at 80% and ? set at 0.05, summary of sample size calculated were as table X belowTable X summary of sample size calculationvariable8. Sampling techniquesAll eligible and consented subjects were included in this study.9. Randomization techniquesSubjects were randomized into 2 treatment groups light resistance training using dumbbell and light resistance training using ankle-wrist weights using RandomAllocation Software version 1.0 (Saghaei, 2004).10. BlindingNo blinding methods were applied in this study. Both participants and beholder know group allocation.11. Study time and seasonThis study was conducted for 6 months beginning from March 2012 until August 2012.12. Methods* Both groups will receive health preparation of promotion of hefty lifestyle which includes promotion of healthy diet, encouraging physical activity and benefits of not smoking.* Resistance trainingi. Dumbbell exercise.In this group, participants performed dumbbell exercise with a equate of light weight (1kg) soft dumbbells for at least 15 handwritingsomes per day, three non consecutive days per work calendar week using dumbbell exercise method invented by Professor Suzuki Masashige, Bull Inst. Health Sport Science, University of Tsukuba (Suzuki, 2000). Supervised group exercises were conducted for 3 months and after that, the subjects will be required to do the exercise on their own. Subjects were given a diary to write the date and duration of training they perform. During weekly follow up, stick aroundnce to exercise was assessed. Subjects who did not adhere to minimal requirement of training will be exclude d from the study. Non adherence was defined as a participant who performs the training less than 80% of required relative relative frequency and duration (less than 9 quantify per month). Figure X below illustrates the resistance training using soft dumbbells with sets of movement as below. This dumbbell exercise consists of 12 steps with 12 repetitions using a pair of soft light weight dumbbell. footfall 1 push up motionStep 2 pull bolt mow motionStep 3 the leg bendsStep 4 Upper body twists left and right movementStep 5 double doors closing movementStep 6 opening and closing movement forward tilt swingStep 7 construction down motion with both turn overStep 8 winding down with one hand movementStep 9 pulling down with one hand movementStep 10 hand down the back swing movementStep 11 arms swing down forward movementStep 12 bending arms stretched behind the head movementFigure X 12 steps of dumbbell exercise using sandbags.ii. Resistance training using ankle and wrist weights.T his group of subjects was not given any specific exercise regime. They were given a pair of 0.5 kg ankle and pair of 0.5kg wrist weights and they were instructed to wear them for at least 15 minutes 3 non consecutive days per week during activities of daily living which involves movements of upper and lower limbs such as walking, doing house chores or gardening. Subjects will be given a diary to write the date and duration of training they perform. Adherence to the training was assessed every week. Non adherence was define as a participant who perform the training less than 80% of required frequency and duration (less than 9 times per month) and those who did not meet minimal requirement of the training were excluded from the study.13. Tools and materialsa. entropy collection sheetA data collection sheet was used to obtain demography data of the subjectsi. Ageii. Sexiii. Raceb. Anthropometry measurementsAnthropometric measurement was assessed by a team of trained personnel. Measure ments as below were obtained.i. crestMeasurement of height was done using a stadiometer. With shoes removed, stand(a) straight up and looking straight ahead, the subject take a plentiful breath and hold. The height was recorded in centimetres to the nearest 0.5cm (ACSM, 2008).ii. Waist circumferenceThe waist circumference was measured using a non elastic measuring mag tape with the subject stand straight and relaxed. Measurement was interpreted 2.5 cm (1 inch) above the umbilicus and below the xiphoid process. The measuring tape was applied tautly but not tightly avoiding compression or pinching of the skin. The smallest circumference at the measurement area was taken as waist circumference, recorded to the nearest 0.5cm (ACSM, 2008).iii. Hip circumferenceSimilarly, hip circumference was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm using a non elastic plastic tape at the largest circumference around the buttocks, above the gluteal twist (posterior extension) (ACSM, 2008) .iv. Waist-to-Hip Ra tio (WHR)As it name indicate, WHR is a comparison between circumferences of the waist to the circumference of the hip and it represents the distribution of body weight and perhaps body fat of an individual an important predictor of health risks of obesity. The WHR or also known as the abdominal to gluteal ratio (AG ratio) were expressed as a ratio hence there are no units. Calculation as below was used to calculate WHR (ACSM, 2008)v. Resting blood pressureElectronic blood pressure monitoring device Medisana Upper Arm Blood Pressure monitor MTD (Medisana AG.) were used to measure resting blood pressure. Subjects are requested to be free of stimulants which include nicotine products, caffeine products, alcohol or other cardiovascular stimulants for at least 30 minutes before the resting measurement. The subjects also did not involve in any strenuous exercise for at least 60 minutes before resting blood pressure measurement. For measurement of blood pressure, the subjects were asked t o sit comfortably on a chair with back well supported, feet flat, leg uncrossed and relaxed. The right arm which was used for blood pressure measurement in this study was free from any clothing, rested on a table and slightly flexed at the elbow. An appropriate size cuff (a normal adult cuff for those with arm sizes between 24 and 32 cm, and a large adult cuff for those with arm sizes between 32 and 42 cm) was used. The BP cuff with bladder width between 40 to 50% of arm circumference and the length of bladder encircled at least 80% of the subjects arm circumference was applied tightly at the level of subjects heart. Second resting blood pressure measurement was done at least one full minute after the world-class base measurement and if the first and second measurement differ by more than 5 mmHg, third measurement was taken after one full minute (ACSM, 2008).vi. Resting heart rateResting heart rate measurement was taken together with resting blood pressure using similar device use d for blood pressure measurement as above.c. Assessment of body compositionBody composition was determined using the bioelectrical resistivity method Omron Karada Scan HBF-362 Body Composition Monitor which gives information oni. Weightii. Body mass indexiii. Total body fativ. Subcutaneous fat percentagev. Visceral fat levelvi. Skeletal muscle percentagevii. Fat free mass were calculated by extracting total body fat from the body weight. Calculations as below were used.Bioelectric impedance analysis is based on the principle that the resistance to an applied electric current is inversely related to the amount of fat-free mass at bottom the body. This method does not take into account the location of body fat. This method of body composition analysis is very simple and quick to perform. The impedance measure is moved(p) by body hydration status, body temperature, time of day, and therefore requires well controlled conditions to get accurate and reliable measurements. If a person i s dehydrated, the amount of fat will likely be overestimated. Bioelectrical impedance measures the resistance of body tissues to the flow of a small, harmless electrical signal. The proportion of body fat can be calculated as the current flows more easily through the parts of the body that are composed mostly of water (such as blood, urine muscle) than it does through bone, fat or air. It is possible to predict how much body fat a person has by combining the bioelectric impendence measure with other factors such as height, weight, gender, fitness level and age.To ensure validity of the BIA measurement, several measures was taken to ensure that the subjects has normal hydration level.* No eating or drinking within 4 hours of the test.* No exercise within 12 hours of the test* Urinate completely within 30 minutes prior to testOmron Karada Scan HBF-362 Body Composition Monitor was used for this test. Researcher inputs the subjects age, gender and height and then the subject which wear light clothing steps onto the platform barefoot and holding the hand electrodes at 90 degrees. Electrodes in the foot and hand sensor pads send a low, safe signal through the body. Weight, body mass index, total body fat percentage, subcutaneous fat percentage, visceral fat level, and skeletal muscle percentage is calculated automatically in less than a minute.d. Health related physical fitnessThe remaining components of health related physical fitness level besides body composition were then assessed in all participants. ahead starting these assessment, subjects were explained regarding the tests procedures and demonstration were done by researchers to ensure subjects clearly understand and able to perform the tests with correct techniques.i. Cardiorespiratory fitnessAssessment of cardiorespiratory fitness to predict aerobic capacity of participants were done using Kasch Step test or also known as YMCA 3-Minutes Step test which relies on having the subject step up and down on a 3 0.48 cm (12 inch) step box. Before commencing test to the participants, the techniques were explained to the participants and demonstration of the alternating stepping cadence was done. A metronome was set at cadence of 96 beat per minute which gives a stepping rate of 24 steps per minute (4 clicks = one step cycle). With the first beat, one foot is stepped up on the bench, stepped up with the second foot on the second beat, stepped down with one foot on the 3rd beat, and stepped down with the other foot on the fourth beat. The subjects were also allowed to practice the stepping to the metronome cadence. After the three minutes are up, the subjects stop and palpate the pulse at the radial site while standing within the first 5 seconds. A 60 seconds pulse count is taken as the test score (toptrendsports.com, 2012, ACSM, 2008).ii. Muscular enduranceTo assess muscle endurance of the subjects, twain test was administered the push-up test and the curl-up test.Push-up test The test was a dministered with the male subjects starting in the standard down position (hand pointing forward and under the shoulder, back straight, head up, using the toes as the pivotal point) and the female subjects in the modified knee push-up position (legs together, lower leg in bear on with mat with ankles plantar flexed, back straight, hands shoulder width apart, head up, using knees as the pivotal point). The subjects then raise the body by straightening the elbows (up position) and then return to the down position until the chin touches the mat. The stomach is maintained elevated and not touching the mat. The subjects position is ensure to be straight at all times and the subjects must(prenominal) push up to a straight arm position. the test was stopped when the subjects strains forcibly or is unable to maintain the appropriate technique within two repetition. The maximal number of push-ups performed consecutively without rest was counted as the score (ACSM, 2008).Figure X Push-ups p erformed by male subjects.Figure X Push-ups performed by female subjects. whizz minute sit-up test (Crunch test) With the shoes remained on, the test was performed with the subjects assume a supine position on a mat, the knees at 90 degrees and the hands held crossways the chest. The trunk was then elevated to 30 degrees, lifting the shoulder blades off the mat hands placed on the thighs and then subjects then do a slow, controlled curl-up until the hands reach the knee caps. The subjects were required to do as many curl-ups as possible in one minute and the number of curl-ups performed without pausing were recorded as the score (ACSM, 2008).iii. Muscular strengthHandgrip test using a Lafayette 100kg Handgrip Dynamometer model LA-78010 was conducted to determine muscular strength of the subjects. The test was performed with the subject standing and using the dominant hand only. The grip bar of the dynamometer was adjusted for each subject, ensuring that the grip bar fit comfortably within the subjects hand and the second joint of the finger fit under the handle of the adhesive friction dynamometer. Before starting test, the detainment dynamometer is set to zero. The subject holds the handgrip dynamometer parallel to the side of the body at about waist level with the forearm levelled with the thigh and the arm is slightly flexed.The subject then squeezes the handgrip dynamometer as hard as possible without holding their breath (Valsalva maneuver) and the results was recorded in kilograms. For each subject, the test was repeated two more times and the highest reading was taken as the measure of handgrip strength (ACSM, 2008).Figure X Use of hand-grip dynamometer to testiv. FlexibilityFor assessment of flexibility, the Sit and click test (Trunk Flexion) using a sit-and-reach box was administered. Before starting the test, subjects were offered the opportunity to do some stretching exercises and light to moderate aerobic exercise for 5- 10 minutes to warm up t heir muscles. Subjects were allowed to take a few practice tries before the actual measurement and if the subject has any back problem or the test bothers them, the subject was excluded for the assessment. To assist with the best attempt, the subjects were advised to exhale and drop the head between the arms when reaching. The knees of the participants were kept extended (but not pressed down). Subjects were also advised to breathe normally and that they should not hold their breath during the test.The subject sits without shoes and the sole soles of the feet flat against the sit-and-reach box at the 26cm mark. Inner edges of the soles were placed within 2cm of the measuring scale. With hands kept parallel, the participant then slowly reaches forward with both hands as far as possible and the fingertips were in contact with the measuring portion of the sit-and-reach box. This position was hold for approximately 2 seconds. The test were repeated three times and the score taken was th e most distant point (in nearest cm) reached with the fingertips (ACSM, 2008).Figure X Sit and reach test using a sit-and-reach box.e. Biochemical analysisFive millilitres of blood from antecubital vein was taken from each subject after at least 12 hours overnight fasting for biochemical analysis of metabolic abnormalities. The blood was collected in two tubes, the first tube was plain tube without anticoagulant and the second tube was with oxalate/fluoride. The samples were send to a private independent laboratory (BP laboratory) for biochemical analysis belowa. Fasting blood sugarb. Fasting lipid profiles14. Data collection* At baseline, all participants were given advice on healthy lifestyle promotion of healthy diet and physical activity.* The study participants then completed questionnaires and assessments fora. Sociodemography.b. Measurement of anthropometry.c. Body composition measurement.d. Health related components of physical fitness assessment.e. Biochemical analysis for blood sugar and lipid profiles.* The study participants were then randomized into two equal size groups. The first group undergo light resistance training using dumbbells and the second group undergo light resistance training using ankle-wrist weights for at least 15 minutes, three times per week. Group training was conducted for the first 3rd months in the dumbbell group with weekly adherence monitoring for both groups.* At the end of first sixth and 12th week, patient were assessed fora. Anthropometry measurementb. Body composition measurementc. Physical fitness assessmentd. Biochemical analysis* After the third months, participants in both groups were required to do the light resistance training on their own and at the end of 6th month, all the above parameters were assessed again to look at the sustainability of the training program and its effects.statistical analysisData entry and statistical analysis were done using SPSS software version 18.0 (SPSS Inc.).As the same subjects were observed on multiple cause (at baseline, 6th, 12th and 24th week), repeated measures analysis of variances were selected as the statistical test. As data were obtained repeatedly from the same subjects, RM ANOVA enables us to obtain information regarding individuals patterns of change, were more economical as fewer subjects were required and enable us to reduce error of variance. Carry-over effects and latency effect were not tortuous in this study as theres no cross-over of intervention in the study design. However, learning effect might be involved in this study especially in assessing health-related components of physical fitness as the subjects might improve with repetition of the assessment.For all objectives, all the three different designs used in repeated measures were assessed in this study* Within group factors with regard to time (time effect)o 6th week compared to baselineo 12th week compared to baselineo 24th week compared to baselineo 12th week compared to 6th w eeko 24th wee compared to 6th weeko 24th week compared to 12th week* Between group factors regardless of time (treatment effect)o Ankle-wrist weight group compared to dumbbell group* Within-between group factors with regard to time (Time-treatment interaction).o Ankle-wrist weight group compared to dumbbell group at baselineo Ankle-wrist weight group compared to dumbbell group at 6th weeko Ankle-wrist weight group compared to dumbbell group at 12th weeko Ankle-wrist weight group compared to dumbbell group at 24th weekAll the four steps involved in RM ANOVA were executed as belowi. Data exploration and cleanupii. Fit the RM ANOVA modeliii. Checking assumption ofa. Normality of residualsb. Homogeneity of variancec. Assumption of compound symmetryiv. Interpretation, presentation and conclusionStep 1 Data exploration and cleaningDescriptive statistics for all the variables were obtained with data exploration. Any missing values and error in data entry were assessed before analysis with data cleaning. Subjects with missing data were excluded from analysis.For numerical variables, descriptive statistics using phrase structure below were used to central point of numerical data, dispersion and graphical visualization of data normality (histogram with normality plot).FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=VariableName/FORMAT=NOTABLE/NTILES=4/STATISTICS=MEAN STDDEV MEDIAN/HISTOGRAM NORMAL/ORDER=ANALYSIS.For categorical variables, syntax below was used to obtain frequency and percentage of those variables.FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=VariableName/PIECHART PERCENT/BARCHART FREQ/ORDER=ANALYSIS.Step 2 Fit the repeated measure ANOVA modelRepeated measures ANOVA were executed using syntax belowGLMVar_baselineVar_sixwkVar_twelvewkVar_twentyfourwkBY Intervention/WSFACTOR=time 4 Polynomial/METHOD=SSTYPE(4)/POSTHOC=Intervention(BONFERRONI)/PLOT=PROFILE(time*intervention)/EMMEANS=TABLES(OVERALL)/EMMEANS=TABLES(intervention)

Calculation of Payback Period for Investor Return

Calculation of Payback Period for Investor publicationExecutive SummaryThe line exclusively deals with the Accounting and Financial Management. The report has been carve up into two broad types. The first part deals with the calculations regarding the payback check, reasonable accounting return and break-even analysis. This part of the report too explains the various aspects of the same. The next half of the report is based on the calculations related with the Horizontal and vertical analysis. Further, it also explains the different patterns and trends present in the Income contestation and Balance Sheet based on the calculations done. fundamentThe primary objective of accounting in any business is to help that business make the maximum profit after tax. Unless(prenominal) accounting makes its full voice to that objective, its apostrophize cannot be justified. In todays industry, one of the ways accounting pays for itself is to help circumspection to control operations. Ano ther way is to help management utilize its working capital to the greatest possible advantage.Every business has important financial concerns and its success or failure depends in a round part on the quality of its financial decisions. Effective financial decision making requires an understanding of the goal(s) of the firm. The widely accepted objective of the firm is to maximize the respect of firm for its owners, i.e. to maximize shareholders wealth (MAYER, R. et al, 2005).Hence, the accounting and financial management has become an integral part of business in the twenty-first century. The concept of payback period, average accounting return, breakeven analysis, trend analysis and vertical analysis are very important for any business, big or small.Discussion2.1 Problem 1A company is considering a capital envision costing 400,000. The exchanges forecasts, together with the forecast expenditure are shown below shelve 1 Sales and spending Forecast divisionSales ()Cost of Sale s ()Other variable costs ()Fixed costs except depreciation ()Depreciation ()1200,00060,00020,00030,000100,0002300,00090,00030,00030,000100,0003400,000120,00040,00030,000100,0004300,00090,00030,00030,000100,0001,200,000360,000120,000120,000400,000The to a higher place problem can be formulated in the form of Income Statement as belowTable 2 Income Statement of the Companytwelvemonths1234Sales200,000300,000400,000300,000Cost of Sales(60,000)(90,000)(120,000)(90,000) realise Profit140,000210,000280,000210,000Variable Cost(20,000)(30,000)(40,000)(30,000)Earnings ahead Fixed Charges120,000180,000240,000180,000Fixed Cost(30,000)(30,000)(30,000)(30,000)Earnings before tax and depreciation90,000150,000210,000150,000Depreciation(100,000)(100,000)(100,000)(100,000)Net Income-10,00050,000110,00050,0002.1.1 Calculation of Payback period for the ProjectThe payback period for the project is the length of time to get your money back (FABOZZI and PETERSON, 2003). In this problem, the company has invested 400,000.The table below shows the expected cash flows in the four old ageTable 3 Expected Cash Flows of the CompanyEnd of YearExpected Cash FlowsAccumulated Cash Flows190,00090,0002150,000240,0003210,000450,0004150,000600,000From the table above, it is clear that at the end of Year 2, the full 400,000 will not be paid back. We need to have some amount from Year 3 as well. The amount needed from Year 4 will be 400,000 240,000 = 160,000.Hence, the payback period is calculated asPayback Period2 years + 160,000/210,000= 2.762 years= 2 years and 9 months (Approx.)Thus, the Payback period for the company is 2 years and 9 months.Calculation of the Average Accounting ReturnThe Average Accounting Return (AAR) measures the return on an enthronization, after taxes and depreciation, over a specified period. Mathematically, the ratio is equivalent to the expected average earnings less taxes and depreciation, divided by the average ledger value over the duration of the investment.Ac cording to table 2 above, we need to find the values ofAverage project earning after tax and depreciationAverage Net Income = Sum of all Net Incomes / No. Of Years= (-10,000 + 50,000 + 110,000 + 50,000) / 5= 50,000Average book value of the investment during its life timeThe depreciation for each year is 100,000. Thus, the yearly book value of investment is given byTable 4 Book determineYearBook Value1400,0002300,0003200,0004100,00050Average book value = Sum of all book values / No. Of years= 400,000 + 300,000 + 200,000 + 100,000 + 0 / 5= 200,000Average Accounting Return (AAR) = 50,000 / 200,000= 0.25Therefore, the Average Accounting Return for the invested 400,000 after taxes and depreciation is 25 %.Break-Even abstract for the ProjectOne of the most common tools used in evaluating the economic feasibility of a new enterprise or product is the break-even analysis. The break-even load is the point at which revenue is exactly friction match to costs (HOLLAND, 1998). At this po int, no profit is made and no losses are incurred. The break-even point can be expressed in terms of unit sales or pound sales.That is, the break-even units indicate the level of sales that are required to cover costs. Sales above that number result in profit and sales below that number result in a loss. The break-even sales indicate the pound of gross sales required to break-even. So, a break-even cannot be calculated only once. It should be calculated on a regular basis to reflect changes in costs and prices and in order to maintain profitability or make adjustments in the product line. 1Break-even (Sales) = Total Fixed Cost / (1- Total Variable Cost / Sales)For Year 1,BEP (Sales) = 130,000 / (1- 80,000 / 200,000)= 216,666.67For the Year 2, 3 and 4 also same BEP (Sales) value came due to proportionate change in total fixed cost, total variable cost and sales.This figure is the level of sales that the company must reach in order to break even. Again, if the company is reaching mor e than this, then it should be making a profit and if it is not, the company will not be selling enough to cover the fixed expenses.Thus, no profits are made from the sale of product until more than 216,666.67 in gross sales is generated.____________________Source 1, HODGETTS KURATKO,1986.As sales increases, variable costs are incurred, meaning that total costs (fixed + variable) also increase. At low levels of output, costs are greater than income. At the point of intersection (total sales and total cost intersection), costs are exactly equal to income, and hence neither profit nor loss made. This point of intersection is called the Break-even point which is found to be 216,666.67.In the first year, the total sale made by the company is 200,000. But BEP (Sales) is found to be 216,666.67. That means, the company is still short of 16,666.67 in order to make neither profit nor loss i.e. BEP.In the atomic number 16 year, the total sale made by the company is 300,000. Compared to the BEP (Sales) which is 216,666.67 the company is now making profit. And it continues to do that for year 3 and 4 as well.Thus, break-even analysis helps a company to maintain profitability when costs and prices changes.2.2 Problem 2The Horizontal and vertical analyses on financial statements of the Geneva Palace Hotel are as followsTable 5 Income Statement (Horizontal Analysis)Income StatementGeneva Palace HotelFor the Years Ending 31 December 2005, 2006 and 20082005% ( 2005-2006)2006% (2006-2007)2007Food Sales Revenue 1,700,5005.26 1,790,0004.00 1,861,600Cost of Goods Sold471,1286.38501,2008.00541,296Gross Profit1,229,3724.831,288,8002.441,320,304Operating ExpensesSalaries and Wages541,65412.36608,6009.00663,374Employee Benefits63,00813.6471,60011.0079,476Laundry Expenses17,0055.2617,9003.5018,527Supplies Expenses52,0893.0953,7003.5055,580Advertising16,8266.3817,9006.0018,974Utilities36,8603.0938,0001.5038,570Maintenance16,91012.3619,00010.0020,900Other Expenses38,8003.0940,000 1.5040,600Total Operating Expenses783,15210.67866,7008.00936,001Income Before Fixed Charges446,220-5.41422,100-8.95384,303Fixed ChargesRent19,4003.0920,0004.0020,800Property Taxes9,4006.3810,0005.0010,500 restitution4,25017.655,00020.006,000Interest76,0005.2680,0004.0083,200Depreciation19,2004.1720,0004.0020,800Total Fixed Charges128,2505.26135,0004.67141,300Inc

Devil on the Cross by Ngugi wa Thiong’o Essays -- African Authors Ken

Devil on the Cross was written by Ngugi while he was imprisoned. He was held without trail by a government that tried to shut up him. The out come was a book that was One of the centurys greatest novels by the Tribune. In the following passages I plan to explain the moment of four characters that are affected by capital class. The speaker of the passage She sat down on a box is the gorgeous protagonist Jacinta Wariinga. Jacinta Wariinga is a young beautiful black woman who easily stops men in their tracks. She is the like Thanksgiving dinner, a feast for the eyes. Jacinta moves with grace when she is without self-conscious. Underneath solely her beauty, she is a suicidal person who hates her blackness. Jacinta truly hates her blackness because she uses skin-lightening creams. The skin-lightening cream rejects her skin color because the cream knows that which is born black can never be clear. She clearly suffers from Cultural Imperialism. Cultural Imperialism has wiped out the mu sic, culture and fraud many. The military has taken over lands for their own personal use, economic stability can not be reached between classes because the gap between the rich and poor has increased and political power is the only thing of magnificence. The people are of no importance because if they were better living conditions and necessary items would be more accessible. Jacintas color coated thinking has led her to believe that her appearance is the root cause of all her problems. Jacinta compendiums her many problems with a small mirror. Jacinta is using a small mirror for petty problems when she needs to be using a mirror like the one in my room, 7feet tall by 5 feet wide. With that mirror she can examine all the cultural imperialism flaws and not just her materialistic problems. The small mirror depicts her problems to be petty. If Jacinta truly wanted to analyze all of her problems she should a use a mirror like the one in my room, 5 by 7, she can clearly notice all of her flaws. Ngugi, clearly tried to show that her problems are petty because the size of the mirror. The speaker of the passage Have I been on the road all this time is Robin Mwaura the rapper. Robin Mwaura is a false artist. He is a trickster, a con artist, in todays familiarity Robin Mwaura would is considered a rapper, a great one at that. Mwaura would be an excellent rapper because h... ...He thinks he does, but in reality he doesnt. prof Gatuirira is trying to create a lie, but he doesnt know he is. Music can create art for many human voices when it is true. The art the professor is trying to create is false. It is a cross over from American culture to African culture. He has yet found the tune because it is all innocence wash. Nothing that the professor studies to create his national anthem is relevant to his current situation. Even though he thinks it is right to create a national anthem, on that point is a flipside to this. That reality that the professor fails to see in cludes factions and class struggle. Africa is plagued by gender and sexism. It makes it difficulty for women to find jobs. The exploitation of middle and lower class by the pep pill class is selfishness. The selfishness leads to high corruption because everyone is trying to get rich. Nothing of what the professor wants the people to sing is true.Devil on the Cross shows the affects of the capital class. The age of erudition dealt with reason and progress. Where the capital class tries to roadblock the ideas of the age of Enlightenment, it is up to the people to pick up the ball and succeed

New York :: essays research papers

NEW YORK CITYNew York is probably one of the most interesting cities in the world. It has something to offer to everybody. If you are looking for culture you make the discipline choice visiting one of the hundreds great museums in the city.If you necessity night-life you are probably right in one of the notable clubs and discotheques of the city. Or if you just want relaxing holi daylights you better go to one of the famous parks N.Y. has to offerI would recommend you to see Brooklyn twain if you are interessetad in great engeneering work. The Brooklyn Bridge is located across from City Hall Park. It is one of the great engineering milestones of the 19th century. Overlooking the East River, this historic crossing divides Manhattan and Brooklyn. Visitors are able to travel across the bridge for an excellent view of lower Manhattan, and there is a path for pedestrians and bicyclists that allows a contrasting view of the two boroughs. When the Brooklyn Bridge opened in 1883 after 16 years of construction, it linked the two independent cities of New York City to Brooklyn. The Brooklyn Bridge was the first suspension bridge build with steel. N.Y. is also famous for hosting the UNO nations headquarter (like vienna does, too)The buildings and grounds contain sculpture and other works of art donated by section nations. Here, in the Parliament of Man, history is made as representatives of member nations work to resolve international problems. A limited number of free tickets is available on a first-come, first-served basis, for meetings of the General Assembly and Councils, when in session, shortly beforehand meeting times, 1030am-330pm. You can fulfill almost all your needs from high culture to wilderness inside the city limits, but if you are obdurate to see the surrounding areas, here are a few ideas for day trips out of the city. There are some good beaches near New York and its thinkable to get to them for a day trip. Coney Island is the nearest, you can get there on the subway but I wouldnt swim there because the water is middling dirty as they say. A better bet is to check with the Long Island Railroad and inquire about their special beach packages which are available in June, July, and August.. For instance, you can get a round trip ticket to Long Beach on Long Island and a pass to use the beach for the day for about $12.